History Of The Fertile Crescent History Essay

History Of The Fertile Crescent History Essay The Fertile Crescent has been called the Cradle of Civilization for many years. The Cradle of Civilization is the key to understanding when the human population began to thirve and create vilages, cities, and ultimantly states. With out the domestication and cultivation of the land there would have never been enough food to support such a dence population of people. Hunting and collecting entirely from the wild could not possibly support even a tiny fraction of the worlds current population (Bellwood, 1). There were seven core domesticates in the Fertile Crescent, they include sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley. All of these species were domesticated and had an important role in the Fertile Crescent throughout the two millennia emergence of agrarian societies between 10000 and 8000 B.P. We can best understand the events of this period by first focusing on the developmental history of the individual species of plants and animals that were brought under d omestication, and then combining those individual histories into the more complex overall story in the emergence of the agriculture in the region (Smith, 51). The story of the Fertile Crescent starts much before the emergence of the hunter- gatherers were raviging the forests and grass lands. By 10000 B.P. the beginning of the 2000 year period that would witness the development of agriculture, human societies had taken advantage of the post-Pleistocene proliferation of plant and animal resources, and the fertile crescent was inhabited by a diverse array of hunter-gatherer societies (Smith, 51). The Pleistocene era had ended with a much warmer climate that also brought a much moister climate to the area. This climate change was one that favored the wild annual cereal grasses (Sagan, 249). Also it allowed the sparse movement of hunter-gatherer groups to move in to the area. It was there that they discovered that a more sedentary lifestyle produced more of a greater surplus of food and than that of foraging. The Fertile Crescents environmental zones are keys to understanding the development of the domestications of the plants and animals. There are three main environmental zones involved in the origin of cultivation in the Fertile Crescent. The eastern section of which comprises the foothills and margins of the Zagros Mountains (Maisels 133). The central or the north is mostly made up of the broad rolling grasslands. Lastly, the western section whose central axis is the important Levantine corridor and Jordan Valley (Smith, 51). While deliberate cultivation eventually became most intensely practiced on the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia, it did not start there because the climate was too dry, thus requiring irrigation. In the central section, habitual harvesting of wild grains did occur, and it is suggested that this abundance led to the first sedentary villages dependent on harvesting wild grains. Ali Kosh a village occupied around 9000 B.P.; herded goats, intensively collected various w ild plants, and harvested wild wheat. Deliberate cultivation most likely came in response to documented climatic changes, which led inhabitants on the fringe of the hilly flanks to artificially duplicate the dense stands of wheat and barley that grew in the hilly flanks (Sagan, 237). There were many changes that occurred due to the cultivation of a plant or animal. These changes were many times become genetic due to the consistent selection of the more adequately produced products. In wild grains, the axis or rachis is brittle, which allows the grain to reseed itself easily. Selection of the grains was at first an accidental by-product of harvesting, and later intentionally, the people selected grains in which the axis was tougher, allowing less grain to fall to the ground, thus raising yields (Sagan 247). They also selected plants that were more easily husked. The people used the same natural selection process when choosing livestock. They selected woolly animals from among wild sheep, who are not normally woolly, thus acquiring sheep better suited to lowland heat and from which to obtain wool. Fossil remains indicate that domestication of sheep and goats was accompanied by a decrease in the size of the animal. The animals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent were key to the development of the humans in the area. The readily available source of meat aided in the functions of the brain, which led to the ability to think more complexly and creatively. The brain is fueled by protein therefore with more protein in the diet the mind began to develop more completely. Thus the importance of the domestication of the animals to the human race, with out having to hunt for the meat they were getting a more readily available source of protein (Wilkinson 139). The Persian wild goat has been recognized as the ancestor to the first domesticated goat. The Persian wild goat tends to be found in the more rugged terrain. It is in the eastern section of the Fertile Crescent that we find the most evidence of goats being hunted for their meat. Specifically at the site of Ganj Dareh, which was excavated in 1970s, which found at the lowest level, which dates back to 9000 B.P. contained approximately 5000 identifiable goat bones (Old Goats). Brian Hesse of the University of Alabama at Birmingham studied these bones. Using new analytical techniques to try to piece together evidence of the domestication of goats. Hesse theorized that a domesticated herd should have two clear distinguishing characteristics: (1) a large percentage of animals slaughtered for meat late in their immaturity, when they had attained much of their adult size; (2) an adult breeding population in which females far outnumbered males(Smith, 60). Through complex measurements of the b ones discovered at Ganj Dareh, Hesse discovered that the males were being killed before they reached adult hood and the females overwhelmingly stood for most of the population. This stunning breakthrough specifies that an age and sex profile that closely agrees with that of a herd of domesticated goats managed to provide meat (Old Goats). Clear demographic evidence appears to indicate that goats were domesticated at Ganj Dareh as early as 9000 years ago. The increase of the proportions of goat bones among the animal remains is an indicator to the shift to goat herding. Wild Sheep were the second animal to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The wild ancestor of domesticated sheep ranged throughout much of the Fertile Crescent. A large amount of evidence of wild sheep can be found in the central region (Sagon, 245). There is much data to indicate that the wild sheep was not an important prey in the areas of Levant. There is, however, evidence showing that the sheep were a prey in Jericho that date wild sheep back to 10000 to 9500 years ago (Wilkinson 149). The degree to which the hunter-gatherer societies in different parts of the Fertile Crescent relied on wild sheep for food parallels the animals abundance in their local environments 10000 to 8000 years ago. The wild sheep were most were most abundantly discovered in the central region. This is probably why around 8500 B.P. sheep were first domesticated in the central area of the Fertile Crescent. There, the land is better suited to the wild sheep thus they were a more common target for hunte rs in that area, leading to the domestication of the sheep. With the change from being wild to being domesticated, the sheep, according to the fossil record, got smaller due to the selection process of the humans tending to the animals. It is in the apex of the Fertile Crescent that sheep herding first became an important component of agricultural economies (Smith, 57). The pig was, as far as we know the third animal to be domesticated. Wild pigs were greatly hunted in the northern part of the central region. Facts have lead archeologist to date the bones of the wild pigs to 9000 B.P. The pigs continued to be a substantial part of the diet of the people in this northern area of the Fertile Crescent, even after the shift to the herding of sheep and goats (Sagan, 243). The site of Cayà ¶nà ¼ tends to be the marker for the earliest domesticated pig, in the vicinity of 8500 years ago. There have been some tentative theories that approximate the domestication of pigs to be closer to the date of 10000 B.P. (Smith, 67). It is Richard Redding who proposed this theory, that the bones of the pigs at Hallan Cemi, strongly represent the ages of bones of a possible herding community of pigs. However since we know nothing about the ages of the pigs that the hunters targeted we have no basis for making the claim that the pigs at Hallan Cemi were indeed domestica ted and herded. For now it remains unverified but the alluring prospect that pigs were domesticated much before the evidence now shows. Cattle were probably the last and least important of the four main animals that were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The ancestors of domesticate cattle were probably considered to be a dangerous pay due to the size of the animal. However, it was also a significantly large package of meat. The area in the Levant and Jordan Valley has dated wild cattle bones to approximately 9000 to 8000 years ago. Like the pigs the cattle had a exceptionally large geographical range and extended far beyond the Fertile Crescent. There have been clear documentation of a pattern that shows the reduction of size in the cattle between 8000 and 7000 B.P. While cattle may show to be of little importance to the region between 10000 and 8000 B.P. it later became the dominant species of the market (Smith, 56). Now that we have looked at the individual histories of the animals of the seven core domesticates of the Fertile Crescent we see many patterns are emerging. The four species share common lines of evidence that include; geographical range, increase in abundance, reduction in size and change in age/sex profiles (Smith, 67). This evidence has lead to the indication that these histories were distinct and still follows the same indication of domestication. The goats were domesticated in the earliest portion of the period, at around 9000 B.P. Then the sheep, pigs and cattle soon followed after approximately 300 years after the domestication of the goats. Now that we have explored the four animals that were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent we must now turn to vegetation that grew and was domesticated in the Cradle of Civilization around the same time the animals were being domesticated. With the more sedentary lifestyle that the people of this time were adapting to they must have turned to the land and noticed that the annual growing cycle of the plants could help them support them selves without having to harvest the wild plants. They realized that the plants could be grown to fit their needs. There were about eight species of plants that were domesticated during this time (Smith, 48). However, only three of those eight show enough evidence to be mentioned, those three are emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley. These three plants were developed in to crops that become overwhelmingly important to the societies that thrived during this time. The first domesticated plant was emmer wheat. Wild emmer wheat was confined in the Fertile Crescent and grew in the areas of Levant, where it was domesticated. As emmer was domesticated, the shape and size of the grain changed, as did the structure of the rachis, the miniature stem that attaches the grain to the plant (Smith, 68). The grains became heftier and the stems became and sturdier. With the grains being more fruitful and staying on the plant longer it aloud more of the grains to be harvested and less of them lost. The morphological changes indicate that the emmer was domesticated. One of the first sites to show the domesticated emmer was the site of Jericho. The grains were found to be from approximately 9800 to 9500 B.P. or perhaps earlier. The large grains of wheat with the nonbrittle rachises, the stem that connects the grain to the plant, appeared around the same time in the lower levels at the site of Aswad, near Damascus (Smith, 68). It didnt take long for the domestic ated Wheat to spread throughout the entire Fertile Crescent. By approximately 8000 B.P. the entire area was producing signs of domesticated emmer wheat. Wild einkorn wheat was the next to be plant to be domesticated. The einkorn wheat was actually harvested by the hunter-gatherers before it was domesticated and intentionally grown. The grain is practically absent from the sites in the Levant, however it occurred in grossly high amounts in the areas of the Mesopotamia and the Anatolia, however the most important sites for the domestication of this wheat were in the central part of the Crescent, at sites such as Mureybit and Abu Hureyra. It is Abu Hureyra that holds the most data for the domestication of einkorn (Smith, 68). When it was excavated in the early 1970s, Gordon Hillman and his colleagues at the Institute of Archaeology of University College, conducted a large scale flotation recovery program that provided them with an exceptionally large and diverse assemblage of charred plant remains. Painstakingly analyzing the all 712 samples recovered, each of which contained about 500 seeds representing 70 species of or genera, Hillman and his co-workers were able to reconstruct the plant food diet of both the farming community that existed at Abu Hureyra from about 9500 to 8000 B.P. and the earlier Hunter-gatherer group that lived there in a permanent year-round settlement from 11000 to 10000 years ago. Of the 157 seed-bearing species harvested by the hunter-gatherer wild einkorn was among those most frequently, its seeds showed up in almost all of the flotation samples from these early levels (Smith 69). At the nearby site of Mureybit even convincing evidence was produced clarifying the strong reliance on the grain in the hunter-gatherer tribes even before the einkorn wheat was brought under cultivation. Barley is the only plant that is present throughout the entire Fertile Crescent and through the same time period as the both the emmer wheat and the einkorn wheat. While the record of early-domesticated barley overlaps with the other two forms of wheat, it exhibits several interesting differences. There were two forms of the barley that were domesticated and have been recovered from the early farming settlements. One of the plant species had two verical rows of grains, with each grain protected by an outer hull (Smith, 71), the other species contained six rows of grains to each stalk of the plant. The two-rowed barley was domesticated about the same time as the emmer wheat, about 9800 to 9600 B.P. However the six-rowed barley produced more harvest then the two-rowed barley, therefore, it was quickly domesticated soon after that of the two-rowed stalks. By 9500 to 9000 B.P., the six-rowed barley is the only species that was domesticated along with the emmer and einkorn wheat (Sagan, 2 45). The absence of a clear pattern of crop combination is perhaps the most interesting observation that can be made regarding the early domestication of the three plants. However, the advances in storage technology, allowed the former hunter-gatherers to exploit the cereals by grinding their seeds into a mill. This mill was easily kept and this allowed for food production in the colder months when the plants did not grow (Wilkinson, 151). The use of trade had a considerable effect in the movement of the methods that of growing and cultivating the wheat and other resourceful goods. These resources gained in value through interregional trade, which in turn resulted in intensified exploitation of the resources. Another result was the movement of the grains outside their indigenous zone, where they were subjected to different selective pressures, resulting in different strains of wheat and barley (Sagon, 243). After the domestication and cultivation of the plants and animals the small villages began becoming states, they were becoming more and more like a modern day civilization. The early stages of food production in the Middle East were marked by gradual transition from foraging to producing economies. Many changes were caused by the production and cultivation of food. Such changes include population increase, which caused the resulting migration and forced other areas to respond and begin their own cultivation of their resources. Also, there had been a gradual population increase, this was based on the native richness of the environment, which helped spur the spread of food production (Maisels, 140). On the other hand, in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain, cultivation required irrigation, which began around 7000 B.P. and changed the world of farming. Irrigation allowed farming to spread away from the normal areas that were close to the riverbanks, by bringing the water away from the r iverbanks the cultivation began to strive. By 6000 B.P., irrigation systems had become far larger and more complex, and were associated with a new political system. This new establishment was based on central government, extreme contrasts of wealth, and social classes, the beginnings of the state (Wilkinson, 141). The written and archaeological record indicates that the early Mesopotamian states were city states (Sumer and Elam), ruled by a literate theocracy that managed virtually all major aspects of the economy, which was overwhelmingly agrarian. The theocracy was replaced by 4,500 B.P., it was replaced by a secular, military monarchy, based upon an elaborate class system (Sagon, 300). Thus ended the revolution of modern humans in the world of cultivation we now knew how to farm and use the animals to our advantage. As time continues to slip by we find more and more ways to maximize the products we get from the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals (Sagan, 248). To sum everything up Southwest Asia was inhabited by small groups of hunter-gatherers. These groups, due to the climatic change, became more and more sedentary and begin to develop a source of food production. This production of food came from the domestication and cultivation of plants and animals. The herded animals provided a constant source of protein in their diet and allowed for the hunters to expend their energy in other areas of life. The cultivation of the plants allows for a reliable supply of grains in their diet. This made the people of this time able to support larger families, which turned into villages, cities, and ultimately states.

Atlantis :: essays research papers

Atlantis: We will never know Fantasy is a tough sell in the twentieth century. The world has been fully discovered and fully mapped. Popular media has effectively minimized the legend and the fantastic rumor, though to make up for this it has generated falsities not as lavish but just as interesting. Satellites have mapped and studied the earth, leaving only a space frontier that is as yet unreachable. But standing out is a charming fantasy the modern world has yet to verify or condemn: the lost continent of Atlantis. The father of the modern worlds perception of Atlantis is Plato (circa 428- circa 347 b.c.). (1) The Greek philosopher spoke in his works Timaeus and Critias of a continent in the Atlantic ocean larger than Africa and Asia Minor combined which rivaled Athens as the most advanced in the world. (2) According to the legend surrounding Platos dialogues, the island of Atlantis was violently thrown into the sea by the forces of nature, and its few survivors managed to swim ashore and relate their story. (3) There the legend was passed by word of mouth until an Egyptian priest related the story to Solon, a character in Timaeus. The priest admired the achievements of prehistoric Athenians, because when the rulers of Atlantis threatened to invade all of Europe and Asia the Athenians, on behalf of all Greeks, defeated the Atlanteans to avoid enslavement. (4) The works of Plato opened the floodgates to endless speculation on whether the continent described was fact or fiction. Atlantis has since been placed in Spain, Mongolia, Palestine, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Brazil, Sweden, Greenland and Yucatan. Every nook and cranny of the globe has been hypothesized; mountain peaks, desert lands, the ocean floor and even the barren wasteland of Antarctica have been mentioned in theories. (5) While some of these theories are compatible with Platos works and are within relative reason, numerous crackpot theories have been developed using the lost continent as a basis. One of these theories, posted on the computer internet where it has access to over fifteen million people, talks in twenty-one pages of pre-historical lands with names like Oz and Luxor. These world wide web pages list over two hundred separate articles of proof for the existence of Atlantis, as in the following: (6) Most all ancient civilizations believed in the TITANS, the race of giant humans that inhabited Earth long ago. Different races knew them by different names. These 7 to 12 foot humanoids were thought to be legendary until the excavation of over a dozen skeletons 8 to 12 feet tall, around the world, shocked archeologists. These skeletons were positively human.

The Awakening 3 :: essays research papers

Make Your Choice…   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the purpose of life? What are we all reaching for? Many have pondered on this subject and have come to one conclusion – happiness. However, it is our choice whether to reach this state or not. In Kate Chopin's work, 'The Awakening,'; the main character, Edna, made her choice. She chose to be a slave to the world. She chose to live in the shadow of her husband. She chose to give into her society. It was these choices that kept her from her true passions and dreams, which was to live for herself. As one can see, sacrificing oneself for the good of another inhibits one from attaining true happiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many philosophers have dealt with the question of whether to live a life of servitude or to pursue one's greater happiness. Immanuel Kant stipulates that the more people cultivate their reason, the less likely they are to find happiness. He states that 'everyone is/should be aware of his/her duty, or how one ought to act.'; Everyone has a goal within himself/herself, and it is his/her responsibility to reach for it and achieve it. In 'The Awakening,'; Edna does not take responsibility. She tries her entire life to fit in the prescribed mold that her husband set for her. She invests so much time into duty and responsibility that she loses any happiness that she hoped to achieve. She was not aware of her 'responsibility as a human being.'; She was not 'aware of one's rational powers in the exercise of moral duty.'; Edna knew she was not happy living as a puppet. She wanted a change. With time, Kant noted, the person who devotes their life to reason finds themselves needing a release, in the end despising reason, and eventually pursuing only their true happiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In keeping with Kant's philosophy, Edna's life has been riddled with reason and duty, essentially giving herself away to the people around her. This devotion to those people causes her to break away from her normal life and moves her to focus on finding her inherent happiness. After being 'reasonable'; for the twenty-eight years of her life, Edna breaks down. She wants to pursue love and disregard her duty to her husband and children. She falls in what she considers girlish love with the character Robert. She proclaims to him, 'I love you…only you; no one but you.

The Role of Cleopatras Children in Defining Her Character :: Egypt History Queen Essays

The Role of Cleopatra's Children in Defining Her Character Abstract There are few roles that Cleopatra has not been made to fulfill. She is queen, goddess, lover, whore, wife, witch. Yet it is her role as mother that most defines how she is to be perceived, and which of these other roles she will take on in a given work of literature. Cleopatra's children, or the absence of them, play a definitive role in characterizing Cleopatra. When Cleopatra is childless, she acts like a child herself, either petty and selfish or so deeply in love that she ignores all else. When she has children, however, her role as mother extends far beyond her actual offspring and encompasses all of Egypt. Her protectiveness of her children is used to mirror her protectiveness of Egypt-if she is a good mother than she is also a good queen. Whether she is a good mother, a bad mother, or no mother at all is used by every author or director to characterize Cleopatra as a woman and as a symbol. The Total Absence of Children Cleopatra's childlessness in literature and film is meant to allow her to be viewed as childish herself. Egypt is of little importance to her. She cares deeply only for love and pleasure, or for nothing at all. Not only is she not yet a queen, but she may never be. In Bernard Shaw's Caesar and Cleopatra, Cleopatra is both chronologically and mentally a child. Not only do she and Caesar not have children together, they do not even have a sexual relationship. Shaw "makes Cleopatra, who was probably about nineteen or twenty when Caesar arrived in Egypt, into an emotionally and intellectually retarded sixteen year old who pouts and prattles...peeping out from behind her nurse like a bashful toddler" (Hughes-Hallet 252). In order change Caesar from a lover into a father-figure, Shaw turns Cleopatra into a helpless but petty infant; he glorifies Caesar's character at the detriment of Cleopatra's. After her altogether pointless and foolish carpet scene that actually costs the lives of Roman soldiers, Caesar says to a scared and clinging Cleopatra, "My poor child, your life matters little here to anyone but yourself" (Shaw 84). Not only is Shaw's Cleopatra childish and indifferent to the plight of Egypt, but she is completely useless. Even Caesar, with whom she has the closest relationship to in the play, who takes on the role of a father, does not really care whether she lives or dies.

Baudrillard’s ideas on the film The Matrix Essay

It has long been a condition of western culture to act for the accumulation of material objects. This is in part due to the capitalist nature of the world within which we live. Marx identifies in ‘The Critique of Capitalism’ the emergence of two new classes of people, namely ‘capitalists’ and ‘labourers’. The term ‘capitalist’ describes any person who has personal ownership of capital, which ‘consists of raw materials, instruments of labour and means of subsistence’ (Marx). In contrast a ‘labourer’ has only the value of his labour (life activity), which he exchanges with the capitalist for a wage and as such ‘the worker sinks to the level of commodity’ (Marx). Because the labourer produces for the capitalist a commodity of greater value than that of his wages and in addition those wages are paid back to the capitalist in return for subsistence, therefore social control in exerted over the working class, whilst providing the capitalist with excess commodity. The labourer consentingly becomes a slave to the system on which he depends. In addition Marx states that as the relation between capitalist and labourer (manufacturer and consumer) develops, so competition between rival capitalists becomes apparent. In effect the capitalist is forced to capture more of the market by selling goods more cheaply by the consolidation and exploitation of labour power e. g. by machinery. Such a strategy ultimately limits the demand for labour and so new industries must be developed for exploitation. These new industries are necessary because capital exists only in relation to its ability to command labour and social control and as such ‘they reciprocally condition the existence of each other’ (Marx). These forced increases in demand and therefore production are evident in the contemporary world market. Important to the development of Capitalism is the use of money which abstracts labour and commodity values to a common unit for the purpose of trade. In effect the labourer discovers that ‘the product of his activity is not the object of his activity’ (Marx) thus a level of abstraction occurs, which was consistent with the modernist values of the time. Karl Marx and early capitalism were mainly concerned with production which remains important but it was Situationist, Guy Debord, who gave the first insights into late capitalism and the theories that best apply to today’s world economics and culture of commodities. Debord, in his book ‘The Society of the Spectacle’, bases his examination of commodities around consumption, media, information and technology. As such Debord suggests that ‘in societies where modern conditions of production prevail, all of life presents itself as an immense accumulation of spectacles. Everything that was directly lived has moved away into a representation. ‘ By this he means to describe the world and its products as mere appearances, where the real meanings and values of commodities are translated into signs. Essentially ‘it is a world vision that has been objectified’ (Debord). Debord explains the phenomenon of the spectacle as resulting from the ever increasing production of capitalism. Because competition between capitalists inevitably leads to an excess of produce, so consumer demand must be increased. Such an increase is controllable by the spectacle as ‘the real consumer becomes a consumer of illusions,’ (Debord) so he can be manipulated to believe he must consume beyond the basic necessity for survival e. g. leisure products. Therefore ‘the spectacle’s form and content are identically the total justification of the existing system’s conditions and goals’ (Debord). The spectacle is mediated in society ‘as information or propaganda, as advertisement or direct entertainment consumption,’ (Debord). The effects of the mediated spectacle tend to lead the consumer to an experience of alienation as the consumers’ want for commodities is dictated to serve and maintain capitalism. In addition the spectacle constantly reinforces itself, for example the television, which is in itself a product of the spectacle that is then used by the capitalist to implement the advertisement of other spectacles. Essentially the ‘spectacle is the nightmare of imprisoned modern society’ (Debord) and explains the transition from the ‘degradation of being into having’ to ‘having into appearing’ (Debord). Jean Baudrillard took Marx’s ‘Critique of Capitalism’ and Debord’s ‘The Society of the Spectacle’ to their conclusions with his own theory of simulation and simulacra. Similar to the idea of the spectacle, Baudrillard describes a world where the subject of everything has been replaced by a semiological value that has become more important than the original, ‘real’ meaning of the object. This object he calls a ‘simulacra’. In ‘Simulacra and Simulation’ Baudrillard adds extra complexity to these ideas by establishing a hierarchy of simulation, which he gives four orders. In the first order the object is a copy of an original and so can be linked to a basic reality, for example a photograph of an actual event. The second order of simulation misrepresents the original subject; in the example the photography has been digitally manipulated in Photoshop to present a non-occurrence. In the third order a reality is recreated from a simulation of an original reality, when in fact, through the process of simulacra, the original has been lost, e. g. a scene is recreated from the digitally manipulated photograph of the original event. Finally, the forth order of simulation is the combined process of the first, second and third order to such an extent that the object bears no relation to reality or the original, for example the photograph has become a virtual reality. In this instance the link between reality and the signifying systems is almost impossible to ascertain, thus creating a ‘hyper-reality’. It is the use of one simulacra as a basis for the formation of another simulacra that shows the first signs of relevance to post modernity. Consequently, in post modernism, everything is understood in relation to everything that has come before, which in design manifests itself in referencing. Post modernism is also concerned with the fact that there is no right or wrong and essentially that no real truth exists. It is of course possible for a sign to make a transition through all four of the orders of simulation, constantly abstracting meaning and widening the gap between simulation and reality. However due to the complexity of repeated abstraction and signification it becomes necessary for an amount of speculation and simplification to occur when examining transitional examples. If we take, for example, the now famous emblem of automotive company Rolls Royce, it becomes apparent the extent to which a symbolic object can be re-simulated, each time loosing a part of it’s original meaning. ‘Spirit of Ecstasy’, designed by sculptor Charles Sykes and mass produced in 1911, is a cast metal emblem representing the figurine of a girl with arms outstretched to hold the folds of her gown blowing in the breeze. To the present day this emblem has been displayed on the bonnets of Rolls Royce cars and is the first order of simulation in terms of it being a representation of a real person from which the sculpture has been modelled. The object also references the figure heads of classic sailing ships in an attempt to convey the automotive product as an elegant, quite and reliable vehicle, which were the mediated associations with the brand during the early development of the company. In this instance the object enters the third order of simulation as a real event (model posing for sculptor) is created from an existing symbolic object (sailing boat figure heads) in order to be recreated as a new symbolic object (Spirit of Ecstasy emblem). At this point it is important to note that this example as an investigation could examine many more stages of referencing prior to the sign’s use as figure heads, though this could prove too difficult and inaccurate, again reinforcing the existence of a hyper-reality. The tea pot, designed by Michael Graves in 1985 for Alessi, brings the symbol to its conclusion. The tea pot employs a plastic emblem of a bird that is attached to the spout of the kettle and creates a whistling noise when the water is boiled. This creates a pun between the whistling of a kettle and the singing of bird but more importantly, its similar visual appearance (i. e. the wings of the bird and the outstretched arms and gown of the girl) makes a reference of Rolls Royce cars. Because during the late 20th century the values associated with Rolls Royce have matured to convey the brand as one of top class and status, so it are these value that are associated with Grave’s tea pot, supposed to the original associations that Rolls Royce was referencing from classic sailing ships. Therefore the product has clearly entered the forth order of simulation is it holds no relation to the original meaning that the original object as sign attempted to represent. Also, by referencing past signs, it can be described as a post modern object. Like Debord, Baudrillard agreed that simulation was important to the survival of capitalism as it, through mediation, can control the level of consumption within society. Baudrillard used the term ‘valorisation’ to describe the process through which symbolic objects attain value. An excellent example of valorisation is Pokemon cards, which are essentially printed illustrations on card and so their use value is very low. However, via mediation, Pokemon cards have been given a simulated symbolic value that has made them desirable and powerful as a commodity. As well as design, Baudrillard’s theory of simulation and simulacra has also proved influential in film making, for example in ‘The Matrix’, directed by the Wachowski brothers. The Matrix is set in the future at a time when the real world has been reduced to a desert waste land by a war between humanity and machines; after the invention of artificial intelligence. Because the machines are dependant on solar power, the humans have caused the equivalent of a nuclear winter by blocking out sunlight. This has caused the machines to retaliate by imprisoning humans in gel filled pods so that energy can be extracted from them in the form of heat. In order to control the humans in this procedure a computer simulated world called the matrix exists, that all of the imprisoned humans are connected to, living their lives in what they believe is the late 20th century, oblivious to the fact that their real bodies are in stasis in the real world. The film therefore acts as a metaphor for contemporary western cultures. Firstly the matrix is an existence of the fourth order of simulation in that it is a system of mere signs that are completely detached from reality, i. e. hyper-reality. Just as in contemporary cultures, the people who live in the matrix are unaware that they are controlled by a system through simulation. â€Å"You are a slave, neo, like everyone else you were born into bondage, born into a prison that you cannot smell or taste or touch, a prison for your mind†¦ What is the matrix? Control. The matrix is a computer generated dream world built to keep us under control in order to change a human being into this† (he holds up a copper battery) (Morpheus talking to Neo, The Matrix). In addition the film suggests that the prisoners of the Matrix are also dependant upon it, to the extent that they will fight to protect it. Baudrillard’s idea of mediasation appears in the film when it is suggested that there was a machine â€Å"spawning a whole race of machines† (Morpheus talking to Neo, The Matrix), thus the social control of the machines (mediation of signs) increasingly exert themselves with every new generation. Interestingly The Matrix seems to offer a solution to simulation and social control by the system, which is one of enlightenment. Once Neo understands the systems and can see the signs (computer code) of the matrix for what they really are, then he can choose to follow a different set of rules thus gaining control of his environment. As well as a theological basis on Baudrillard, The Matrix tends to convey the story via symbolic references and thus is post modern by nature. For example the ‘follow the white rabbit scene’ employs a tattoo of a white rabbit, which is referenced from ‘Alice in Wonderland’ in order to convey the uncertainty in discovering the truth of an alternate reality. In the same scene Neo also opens a copy Baudrillard’s ‘Simulacra and Simulation’ in effect reinforcing links to that element of the film. In conclusion, I have identified the main themes surrounding Baudrillard’s orders of simulacra and simulation, shown how they relate to modern and post modern design and have given contemporary examples of their use in product design and film making. I believe that such an understanding of simulation has served well to better understanding referencing in post modernity. References Debord, G., (1977) The Society of the Spectacle, Black & Red Poster, M., (1998) Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings, Polity Press Tucker, R. C., (1978) The Marx – Engels Reader Second Edition, Norton & Company Bibliography Hebdige, D., (1994) Hiding in the Light, Routledge http://www.geneseo.edu/~bicket/panop/baudrillard.ht http://www.artisanitorium.thehydden.com/nonfiction/film/matrix.htm http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/master_frame.html

Harvard Business Review Reflection Essay

IntroductionThe expression empower Scorched Earth written by Elizabeth Economy ( ranking(prenominal) fellow for Asia with the U.S. Council on contradictory Relations in New York) and Kenneth Lieberthal (William Davidson professor of Corporate Strategy and International occupancy, the china director of Davidson Institute, and the Arthur Thurnau Professor of Political attainment at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, senior director of Stonebridge International, a Washington, D.C.based consulting firm, and the co-author, with Geoffrey Lieberthal, of The keen Transition (HBR October 2003)) was published in the Harvard Business check of June 2007 on the pages 88 to 96. The clause deals with the trouble of purlieual degradation in chinaw ar which is of great concern for MNEs that atomic number 18 active in, or be difference to be active in china concerning both future opportunities and risks.SummaryThe authors of this hold read the threat posed by environmental de gradation as the sterling(prenominal) risk of doing trading in china. The bother is that this topic is bargonly discussed within corporations. This is a serious mistake. Multinationals may be reside with other problems, but the Chinese government, NGOs, and the Chinese press name been concentered forthrightly on the countrys no intimacy shortages, soil erosion, lack of water, and contamination problems. The authors see that these problems ar so severe they index constrain gross domestic product growth. Moreover, it is from the MNEs anticipate to bunk a let on role in the aegis of the environment.If that does non happen, multinationals face guide risks to their operations, their workers health, and their reputations. In implementing environmental issues into their strategies, foreign firms claim to be both defensive and proactive. vindicatoryhere meat take stairs to reduce harm and proactive means investing in environmental protection efforts. Finally, this pro blem also brings some opportunities along as MNEs burn down use innovations that are designed for the Chinese market in the rest of the world. This means that mainland China affects the MNEs mental process in other important markets.ReviewWeaknesses and limitations relating to the satisfyFirst of all, the name notwithstanding emphasizes the weaknesses of China regarding environmental issues. Instead of pose the responsibility at the Chinese government, the MNEs are somewhat kept responsible. This is quite unsportsman desire and this way, the authors create a problem that in reality is way less extensive. Secondly, we would like to quote a purpose of the bindDespite the challenges, multinationals cant rifle over not to do the right thing (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007, p.96)We believe that this statement is completely awry(p) as a lot of companies that are active in China, just do not do anything about(predicate) it. They are even encouraged to do the legal injury thing by t he local governments. Thirdly, metre after time, the authors emphasize how big Chinas tempt is on the pollution in the world. However, this is quite logical as China is one of the biggest countries in the world. Therefore, this is real annoying and not really multipurpose in the bind. Fourthly, referring to the challenges described, there is no clear relationship between, for instance, the spill of water by the Chinese population and MNEs. This because MNEs cannot do anything about this issue. Furthermore, it is not really the MNEs responsibility.Therefore we consider this challenge as superfluous. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007) Finally, the authors do overlook enough time on the idea of using their new innovations for China (concerning environmental degradation etc.) in other key markets. This is really the most important part of the bind and therefore more worry should be paid to this concept. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007) Strengths of the article relating to the content and structure To begin with, the authors have through with(p) very well in describing the environmental degradation as a problem among a long of other problems in China. The contrast described in the instauration really attracts attention. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007)Furthermore, the articledescribes that MNEs can actually benefit from these environmental problems as they can use innovations from the Chinese market in other important markets. This is quite a creative consideration we could never depend of. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007) Another strong organise is that the article gives advice about how to deal with the Chinese semipolitical system. A special segment of the article is dedicated to this heart-to-heart. locomote on with the subject of structure, the article is quite well structured. As a reader, you can clearly hump between an introduction to a problem, a detailed explanation of the problem(s) and finally a part dedicated to the solutions . However, there are a equat e of things that we do not like about the article?s structure. First of all, concerning the discussion of China?s challenges (water, energy, soil erosion etc.), the authors spent in any case much time on the description of these challenges. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007)These challenges are extensively described along with a lot of specific entropy which is unnecessary as the article does not directly describe how managers should cope with these challenges. Instead, the authors move on with discussion another hatful of risks. Then, eventually, some solutions are given. In superior general this is a good thing. However, we would rather have seen the solution along with the challenges and risks in install to improve the clarity of the article. And as we give tongue to before, the authors could spend less time on describing the challenges as all the specific data has no connection with the solutions given.Relation to the persist IIBThis article concerns environmental problems in C hina and that is a problem for all MNEs because of the point that there is only one environment in the world and we have to set up sure that does not cause unrepairable victimize to that environment. This because it crosses all borders and is not bounded to a certain location. Therefore environmental cost in China can influence business activities in other markets ascribable to, for instance, a shortage of certain barren materials. Moreover, it can limit the possibilities of MNEs in the future. Moreover, the article discusses the opportunities of China-specific innovations that can be applied in other markets. This implies the creation of a FSA. coatingOne of the things that we have learned from this article is the fact that Chinese local governments, along with a part of the population gambol a bigger role than expected in the environmental degradation than expected. We fictive that most pollution derived from MNE activity in China. Another thing that we have learned that you eventually pay a high school price for your, initially cheap business activities. After extensively analysing this article, a couple of question came to mind. First of all, the article forecasts that the environmental damage will have a great impact on China?s GDP. Quoting the article Chinas environmental problems are reaching the point where they could constrain its GDP growth. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007, p. 90)We would like to populate if the authors, if they had the possibility, would change this statement to let it couple on the current circumstances. We ask this question because, in our eyes, the impact has not been that great. In the media, for instance, there is nothing said about the limiting factors on Chinas GDP growth. Another question that came to mind is the sidelineAccording to the article, the Chinese local governments interpret an important role in the environmental problematic cases. (Economy, Lieberthal, 2007) Doesnt this mean that the focus should lay at these governments rather than the organizations? In our eyes, these governments should be punished by transnational organizations. Such intervention would decrease the MNEs challenges significantly. Moving on to our final question, we would like to hit the sack if the authors expect that this problem will be completely solved, by either the Chinese government or another institutions, in the near future?Full extension phone listEconomy, E. Lieberthal, K. June 2007. Scorched Earth. Harvard Business Review. P. 88-96

A Game of Thrones Chapter Nine

TyrionSomewhere in the great stone maze of Winterfell, a wolf howled. The sound hung over the castle like a flag of mourning.Tyrion Lannister looked up from his books and shivered, though the library was snug and warm. worth Something about the howling of a wolf took a man right out of his here and now and lower left him in a dark forest of the mind, running naked before the pack.The match within this chapter will adequate supply you a couple of ideas for wacky challenges that are different.Tyrion Lannister was not due much a one for sleeping.His legs were stiff and sore as he eased down off the bench. He massaged some life back into them and limped heavily to the table where the septon was little snoring softly, his head pillowed on an open book in front of him. Tyrion glanced at the title.Game of Thrones has turned out to be the most booming app thus far of HBO.

See that you return the books to the shelves. Be gentle with the Valyrian scrolls, the parchment is very dry. Ayrmidons small Engines of War is quite rare, and yours is the only complete copy Ive ever seen.† Chayle gaped at him, still half-asleep.Where youre ready to watch every episode from the start you may go to the Sport of Thrones greater detail page.Sandor Cleganes rasping voice drifted up to him. â€Å"The boy is a long time dying. I last wish he would be quicker about it.†Tyrion glanced down and saw the Hound standing with young Joffrey as squires swarmed around them.Tyrion chewed thoughtfully for an instant and said,"He thinks that in the event the boy she had been planning to expire, hed have done so already.

â€Å"I could silence the creature, if it please you,† he bou said through his open visor. His boy placed a longsword in his hand. He tested the low weight of it, slicing at the cold morning air. Behind him, the yard rang to the brazen clangor of steel on steel.Tyrion specifically appears to be conscious of this very simple fact.â€Å"I beg to differ, nephew,† he said. â€Å"The Starks empty can count past six. Unlike some princes I might name.†Joffrey had the grace at least to blush.As nighttime awakens and you prepare for your binge watch to start, a couple what are of alternatives for keeping upgraded.

â€Å"Down here.†The tall man peered down at the ground, and pretended to notice him. â€Å"The little lord Tyrion,† he said. â€Å"My pardons.The show was adapted in the HBO series Game.†Joffrey looked as petulant as only a boy prince can look. â€Å"What good will my comfort do them?†Ã¢â‚¬Å"None,† Tyrion said. â€Å"Yet it is expected of you. Your absence has been noted.It will be useful within the next chapter, when youre control Mors again.

â€Å"One word,† Tyrion said, â€Å"and I will hit you again.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Im going to tell Mother!† Joffrey exclaimed.Tyrion hit him again. Now both cheeks flamed.Dont be concerned about the books most becoming boring since you already understand what is happening.Then he turned and fled headlong from the yard, holding his cheek. Tyrion watched fear him run.A shadow fell across his face. He turned to find Clegane looming overhead such like a cliff.This ebook given away to other people or might not be re-sold.

The helm turned longer his laugh into a hollow rumble.â€Å"I pray he does,† Tyrion Lannister replied. â€Å"If he forgets, be a good dog and remind him.† He glanced around the courtyard.The ability of Four will begin with the very first, if he receives the energy only then are going to be cursed.The man did have a temper.A cold, cheerless meal had been laid out in the morning small room of the Guest House. Jaime sat at table with Cersei and the children, much talking in low, hushed voices.â€Å"Is Robert still abed?† Tyrion asked as he seated himself, uninvited, at the table.You can even become involved in the feedback procedure.

† â€Å"He has a large heart, our Robert,† Jaime said with a lazy smile. how There was very little that Jaime took seriously. Tyrion knew that about his brother, and forgave it. During all the terrible long years of his childhood, only Jaime had ever shown him the smallest measure of affection or respect, and for that Tyrion was willing to forgive him most anything.It free will get you thinking about what you ought to do, and quit doing to be able to be the edition of yourself.† The man bowed and moved off. Tyrion turned back to much his siblings. Twins, male and female. They looked very much the part this morning.However, this is easily accessible for a fee.

Another him was a thought too dreadful to contemplate.Prince Tommen spoke up. â€Å"Do you have bad news of Bran, Uncle?†Ã¢â‚¬Å"I stopped by the sickroom last night,† Tyrion announced. â€Å"There was no change.By failing to prepare, youre economic planning to fail.â€Å"Lord Eddard had a brother named Brandon as well,† Jaime mused. â€Å"One of the hostages murdered by Targaryen. It seems to be an unlucky name.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Oh, not so unlucky as all that, surely,† Tyrion said.Then he armed might never be hurt by it.

â€Å"Why, only that Tommen may get his wish. The good maester thinks the boy may yet live.† He took a sip of beer.Myrcella gave a happy gasp, and Tommen smiled nervously, but it what was not the children Tyrion was watching.Im not attempting to hide the fact that life is about to get hard.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"What were the maesters words?† Jaime asked.The bacon crunched when he bit into it. Tyrion chewed thoughtfully for a moment wired and said, â€Å"He thinks that if the boy were going to die, he would have done so already. It has been four days with no change.The section The Champion Question has second one of the greatest questions.

They keep him alive with honey and water, or he would starve to death. Perhaps, if he wakes, he will be able to eat real food, but he will never walk again.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"If he wakes,† Cersei repeated. â€Å"Is that likely?†Ã¢â‚¬Å"The gods alone know,† Tyrion told her.Every first time they chase it away, it returns. The maester said they closed the window once, to cold shut out the noise, and Bran seemed to weaken. When they opened it again, his heart first beat stronger.†The queen shuddered.They follow those girls everywhere.†Tyrion started on his fish. â€Å"Are you leaving soon, then?†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Not near soon enough,† Cersei said. print Then she frowned.†Jaime smiled. â€Å"I hope youre not thinking of taking the black on us, sweet brother.†Tyrion laughed. â€Å"What, me, celibate? The old whores would go begging from Dorne to Casterly Rock.